Of the half-million Jews living in Germany when Hitler came to power, most critically underestimated the danger confronting them. Considering themselves loyal members of the German community, they hoped to persevere and ride out the Nazi storm. Most awakened only slowly to the full extent of the terror. By then it was too late.

A large number of Jews fled in panic during 1933, but mass emigration was unrealistic. Jewish community leaders advised that the best response was to rally together and organize for mutual aid. Local and national Jewish community groups called on the Jewish public to contribute funds for those who had lost livelihoods and homes. Monetary aid and soup kitchens for the poor provided immediate help. Employment agencies, as well as technical and agricultural retraining programs, focused on long-range economic support.

Social and cultural needs sparked a revival of Jewish traditions that boosted morale. The Jewish Cultural Association sponsored work for Jewish actors and musicians. Sports competitions and newly created Jewish schools tried to provide stability and normalcy for young people, while adult-education classes, lectures, and increased synagogue attendance fostered an awareness of religious heritage and shared experience. In effect, persecuted German Jews created a parallel society--separate and, of course, unequal.

This response was based on a not-unreasonable Jewish assumption that, although the Nazis had declared themselves enemies of the Jews, surely they would allow Jews to exist in segregated communities. Deportation and mass murder were considered by hopeful Jews as impossibilities.